Conditions and symptoms
Many patients begin researching by symptom, not by procedure name. These pages map common conditions to their treatment options — from conservative management through to surgical intervention — with cross-links to the procedures we document.
Reference only — not medical advice. See disclaimer.
Tooth loss
Tooth loss, also called edentulism, is the condition of having one or more teeth missing, up to a fully toothless (edentulous) mouth. In adults it most often follows tooth extraction caused by dental caries, periodontal (gum) disease, trauma, or other oral pathology; caries is the main cause under age 45 and periodontal disease in older groups, while in rare cases teeth never develop. The teeth support the lips and cheeks, help form many speech sounds, and allow food to be cut and chewed, so their loss can make the cheeks look sunken, make certain consonants hard to pronounce, and lower quality of life and self-esteem. Edentulism affected about 158 million people worldwide in 2010, more often women and people in older age and lower socioeconomic groups.
8 related procedures
Cosmetic dental concerns
Patients seek aesthetic dental treatment for discolouration, chips, gaps, or shape irregularities. The treatment ladder runs from conservative whitening through bonding and veneers to orthodontic alignment, with the appropriate intervention depending on the underlying dental anatomy and the patient's preferences. Over-aggressive treatment that destroys healthy enamel is the most common quality concern in cosmetic dentistry.
7 related procedures
Androgenetic alopecia
Androgenetic alopecia, or pattern hair loss, is the most common cause of hair loss and primarily affects the top and front of the scalp. It is a non-scarring condition driven by a genetically inherited sensitivity of scalp follicles to androgens, chiefly dihydrotestosterone (DHT). In men it usually begins with a receding hairline at the temples and thinning at the crown, leaving a rim of hair at the sides and back, and it rarely progresses to complete baldness. Women more often experience diffuse thinning across the scalp with the frontal hairline preserved. By the age of 50 it affects about half of men and a quarter of women. Because the underlying process is progressive, people seek medical treatment to slow loss and surgical hair restoration to redistribute follicles.
7 related procedures
Nasal aesthetic concerns or breathing problems
Patients present with cosmetic concerns about nasal shape, with functional breathing problems (deviated septum, turbinate hypertrophy, internal valve collapse), or both. The appropriate intervention depends on whether the issue is purely cosmetic, purely functional, or combined; combined functional-aesthetic procedures (septorhinoplasty) are the most technique-sensitive and have the highest revision rates.
2 related procedures
Breast volume or asymmetry concerns
Patients seek breast surgery for volume change (augmentation or reduction), asymmetry correction, ptosis (sagging) management, or post-mastectomy reconstruction. The appropriate procedure depends on the patient's underlying anatomy, breast volume, skin envelope, ptosis grade, and goals. Combined procedures (e.g. augmentation-mastopexy) are technique-sensitive and have higher revision rates than either component alone.
7 related procedures
Post-pregnancy or post-weight-loss abdominal laxity
After pregnancy or significant weight loss, many people are left with loose abdominal skin and a separation of the two vertical rectus abdominis muscles known as diastasis recti. The separation develops when the linea alba, the connective sheath running down the midline, is stretched, widening the gap between the muscles. It often appears as a ridge down the middle of the abdomen that becomes more prominent on straining, and it is diagnosed on examination by measuring that gap, conventionally about 2.7 cm or more. Although the condition itself carries no associated illness, it may accompany symptoms such as low back pain, pelvic floor dysfunction, urinary incontinence, and umbilical hernia. People seek treatment ranging from targeted physiotherapy to abdominoplasty to address the laxity, muscle separation, and appearance.
2 related procedures
Infertility
Infertility is generally defined as the inability to conceive after at least a year of regular, unprotected intercourse, or after six months when the woman is over 35 or has other risk factors. It may stem from a female factor, a male factor, problems in both partners, or no identifiable cause: male factors account for roughly 20-30% of cases, female factors 20-35%, combined problems 25-40%, and around 10-20% remain unexplained. The most common female cause is disordered ovulation, often from polycystic ovary syndrome, while male infertility is usually due to problems with the semen. Diagnosis involves a medical history and examination of both partners, with blood tests and, for the male partner, semen analysis. The World Health Organization estimated in 2023 that about 17.5% of people experience infertility in their lifetime, prompting treatment from lifestyle measures to assisted reproduction.
9 related procedures
Severe obesity with comorbidity
Obesity is a condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to a degree that can harm health, and it is a major cause of disability. It is measured with body mass index (BMI): a BMI over 30 is defined as obese, while severe obesity means a BMI of 40 or more, or 35 or more alongside a significant comorbidity such as type 2 diabetes, sleep apnoea, or high blood pressure. At this level the health burden is dominated by associated disease, including cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, obstructive sleep apnoea, certain cancers, and osteoarthritis. The fundamental driver is a sustained positive energy balance, with intake exceeding expenditure. It is this combination of excess weight and comorbidity that makes a person a candidate for weight-loss (bariatric) surgery when medical and drug treatment have not succeeded.
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Knee osteoarthritis
Knee osteoarthritis is a degenerative joint disease in which the cartilage of the knee gradually breaks down, the joint space narrows, and bony spurs (osteophytes) form. The knee is one of the large weight-bearing joints most commonly affected. The main symptom is pain, which is typically worse with prolonged activity and relieved by rest, together with stiffness that is worst in the morning, usually easing within half an hour. The joint may creak (crepitus), lock, or feel unstable, and climbing or descending stairs is often painful. It is thought to result mainly from mechanical stress the joint cannot fully repair; risk rises with age, previous joint injury, and family history, and is roughly doubled by obesity. Symptoms usually progress slowly over years, leading patients toward treatment from weight management and physiotherapy up to knee replacement.
1 related procedure
Refractive error
Refractive error is a problem with focusing light accurately on the retina because of the shape of the eye or cornea, and it is the most common cause of visual impairment worldwide. Its three main forms are myopia (short-sightedness), which makes distant objects blurry; hyperopia (long-sightedness), which makes close objects blurry; and astigmatism, which makes objects look stretched or blurry. Other symptoms can include double vision, headaches, and eye strain. The error arises from the eyeball being too long or too short or the cornea being the wrong shape, and there is a genetic predisposition. It is diagnosed during an eye examination. At least two billion people worldwide are affected. It is corrected with spectacles, contact lenses, or refractive surgery such as LASIK or lens implants.
4 related procedures
Coronary artery disease
Coronary artery disease is the narrowing of the arteries that supply the heart muscle, caused by atherosclerosis, in which cholesterol-rich plaques build up on the artery walls and reduce blood flow. The most common symptom is chest pain or discomfort that comes on predictably with activity, known as stable angina; it may be felt as tightness or pressure and can spread to the shoulder, arm, back, neck, or jaw. Some people have no symptoms, and in many cases the first sign is a heart attack. Well-established risk factors include high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, lack of exercise, obesity, high cholesterol, poor diet, and family history. It is the most common cause of death worldwide, affecting about 110 million people in 2015. Treatment is staged from lifestyle change and medication through stenting to bypass surgery.
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Cancer
Cancer is a group of diseases in which cells grow uncontrollably and can invade nearby tissue or spread (metastasise) to other parts of the body; more than 100 types affect humans. Early cancer usually causes no symptoms, and the signs that later appear depend on the tumour's type and location - for example a persistent cough, difficulty swallowing, a change in bowel habit, a lump, or abnormal bleeding - alongside general features such as fatigue and unintentional weight loss. About 90-95% of cancers are linked to environmental and lifestyle factors, chiefly tobacco, diet and obesity, infections, and radiation, with 5-10% due to inherited genetics. Diagnosis is confirmed by a pathologist examining a tissue sample (biopsy). An estimated 18.1 million new cases and 9.6 million deaths occurred globally in 2018, and risk rises steeply with age.
2 related procedures
Hernia
A hernia is the protrusion of an organ or tissue, such as a loop of bowel, through a weakness or opening in the surrounding muscle or fascia. The most common varieties are inguinal and femoral (groin), umbilical, incisional (through a previous surgical wound), and hiatal (stomach into the chest). Many hernias show a bulge that is more obvious on standing, bending, coughing, or straining and often eases on lying down; hiatus hernias instead tend to cause heartburn. Conditions that raise pressure inside the abdomen, such as obesity, straining, chronic lung disease, and pregnancy, contribute, and there is a genetic predisposition. A hernia that becomes trapped and loses its blood supply (strangulation) is a painful emergency. About 27% of men and 3% of women develop a groin hernia in their lifetime; small, symptom-free hernias may be watched, while symptomatic ones are repaired surgically.
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Cataracts
A cataract is a clouding of the eye's normally clear lens that gradually interferes with vision. As the opacity worsens it causes blurred vision, difficulty seeing at night, sensitivity to light, haloes around lights, faded colours, and reduced contrast, which can make everyday tasks and driving harder and increase the risk of falls. Cataract is most often age-related, as the proteins in the lens break down over time, a process hastened by diabetes and high blood pressure; other risk factors include long-term steroid use, smoking, prolonged sunlight exposure, and alcohol, and cataracts may also follow eye injury or be present from birth. It is diagnosed by eye examination, including slit-lamp examination. Cataracts remain the single most common cause of blindness worldwide, and the only effective treatment for an established cataract is surgery to replace the lens.
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Hip osteoarthritis
Hip osteoarthritis is a degenerative joint disease in which the cartilage of the hip is gradually lost, the joint space narrows, and bony spurs (osteophytes) form at the joint margins. The hip is one of the large weight-bearing joints most commonly affected. The main symptom is pain, which is typically worse with prolonged activity and relieved by rest, accompanied by stiffness that is worst in the morning and usually eases within half an hour; the joint may creak, lock, or feel unstable, and movement becomes progressively limited. It is believed to result mainly from mechanical stress the joint cannot adequately repair, together with low-grade inflammation; risk rises with age, previous injury, and family history, and is about twice as high with obesity. As the disease advances and limits daily life, treatment ranges from weight management and physiotherapy up to hip replacement.
1 related procedure
Varicose veins
Varicose veins are enlarged, twisted superficial veins, most often in the legs just beneath the skin, which have no single specific cause, though the underlying problem is weak or damaged valves that allow blood to flow backwards (venous reflux). For many people they are only a cosmetic concern, but when symptomatic they cause aching, heavy legs, ankle swelling, night-time cramps, itching, and a burning or throbbing sensation. Over time the skin near the affected veins may discolour or become inflamed, and severe cases can lead to venous leg ulcers, clotting in the veins, or bleeding. They are more common in women, who develop them about twice as often as men, and are strongly linked to heredity and family history, with related factors including pregnancy, obesity, ageing, and prolonged standing. Affecting about 30% of people at some point in life, they are usually diagnosed by examination and ultrasound and treated with lifestyle measures or minimally invasive procedures.
Treatment ladder
Endometriosis
Endometriosis is a chronic condition in which tissue similar to the lining of the uterus grows outside it, most often on the ovaries, fallopian tubes, and pelvic lining. It commonly causes painful periods, chronic pelvic pain, pain during sex, painful urination or bowel movements, fatigue, heavy bleeding, and infertility, though some women have no symptoms and the degree of pain relates only weakly to how extensive the disease is. Symptoms usually begin in adolescence or the early 20s and tend to ease after menopause. The cause is not fully understood; retrograde menstruation is the leading theory, it behaves as an inflammatory disease, and genetics accounts for around half of the risk. It is diagnosed from symptoms with ultrasound or MRI, with laparoscopy and biopsy the most accurate test. About 10% of women of reproductive age are affected worldwide.
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Presbyopia
Presbyopia is the age-related, progressive loss of the eye's ability to focus clearly on close objects. Most people first notice it after the age of 40, when it becomes harder to read small print and they find themselves holding reading material farther away, as if their arms were too short. It can also bring eye strain, headaches, and difficulty switching between near and far, but it does not affect the ability to see distant objects. Presbyopia is a normal part of ageing: the lens gradually stiffens and the focusing (ciliary) muscle weakens, so the eye can no longer reshape the lens for near vision. It is diagnosed during a comprehensive eye examination. As of 2015 an estimated 1.8 billion people were affected, and everyone over 40 becomes affected to some degree, correcting it with reading glasses, contact lenses, or lens-based surgery.
2 related procedures
Post-bariatric excess skin
After significant weight loss (typically more than 30 kg, often after bariatric surgery), the skin envelope does not fully retract, producing excess folds at the abdomen, arms, thighs, breasts, and back. The condition is a contributor to skin breakdown, hygiene issues, and reduced quality of life. Treatment is staged body-contouring surgery once weight is stable.
5 related procedures
Severe male pattern baldness
Severe male pattern baldness is advanced androgenetic alopecia in men - a non-scarring hair loss affecting the top and front of the scalp. It typically begins with a receding frontal hairline and thinning over the crown and, as it progresses, leaves only a rim of permanent hair at the sides and rear of the head, known as a "Hippocratic wreath," though it rarely reaches complete baldness. This advanced stage, graded towards the higher end of the Hamilton-Norwood scale, is distinguished by extensive crown and frontal loss and a limited donor area of remaining hair. The condition is caused by a combination of male sex hormones, chiefly dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and a strong genetic predisposition, with around 80% of bald men having bald fathers. Because the donor supply is limited, treatment aims to distribute it realistically rather than restore full coverage.
6 related procedures
Gummy smile
Excessive gingival display on smiling, typically defined as more than 3 mm of gum visible. Causes include short upper lip, vertical maxillary excess, altered passive eruption, and hyperactive upper lip elevator muscles. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and ranges from botulinum toxin through to orthognathic surgery in severe cases.
1 related procedure
Jaw malocclusion
Jaw malocclusion is a misalignment or incorrect relationship between the teeth of the upper and lower dental arches when the jaws close. It is a very common finding and is usually mild and not serious enough to need treatment, but more severe cases - including skeletal disharmony between the jaws - can distort facial shape and impair chewing and speech. Reported consequences include a higher risk of tooth decay and gum disease where hygiene is difficult, trauma to prominent front teeth, difficulty chewing, speech problems such as a lisp, and effects on self-esteem. The causes are multifactorial, combining genetic and environmental influences on the size and position of the jaws, the surrounding muscles, and the teeth. It is classified by the relationship of the molars when the jaws close. Around 30% of people have malocclusion severe enough to benefit from orthodontic treatment, sometimes combined with jaw (orthognathic) surgery.
1 related procedure